Harshad Mehta Scam

Harshad Mehta scam: Harshad Mehta  was an Indian stockbroker and is alleged to have engineered the rise in the BSE stock exchange in the year 1992. Exploiting several loopholes in the banking system, Harshad and his associates siphoned off funds from inter-bank transactions and bought shares heavily at a premium across many segments, triggering a rise in the Sensex. When the scheme was exposed, the banks started demanding the money back, causing the collapse. He was later charged with 72 criminal offenses and more than 600 civil action suits were filed against him.He died in 2002 with many litigations still pending against him. 3. 1 Ready Forward Deal (RF): †¢ The crucial mechanism through which the scam was effected was the Ready Forward deal. †¢ The Ready Forward Deal (RF) is in essence a secured short term (typically 15 day) loan from one bank to another bank. The lending is done against Government Securities exactly the way a pawnbroker lends against jewelry. †¢ In fact one can say that the borrowing bank actually sells the securities to the lending bank and buys them back at the end of the period of the loan at (typically) a slightly higher price. It was this RF deal that Harshad Mehta and his associates used with great success to channel money from banking system. 3. 2 The Mechanics of the Scam: As explained above, a ready forward deal is, in substance, a secured loan from one bank to another.To make the scam possible , the RF had to undergo a complete change. In other words it practically had to become an unsecured loan to broker. This was wonderfully engineered by the brokers. To give a better understanding of the mechanism, the whole process has been segregated into 3 different parts. . The settlement process 2. Payment cheques 3. Dispensing the security 1. The settlement Process: ? The normal settlement process in government securities is that the transacting banks make payments and deliver the securities directly to each other. ? Dur ing the scam, however, the banks or at least some banks adopted an alternative settlement process which was similar to the process used for settling transactions in the stock market. ? In this settlement process, deliveries of securities and payments are made through the broker.That is, the seller hands over the securities to the broker who passes them on to the buyer, while the buyer gives the cheque to the broker who then makes the payment to the seller. ? In this settlement process, the buyer and the seller may not even know whom they have traded with, both being known only to the broker. ? There were two important reasons why the broker intermediated settlement began to be used in the government securities markets. ? The brokers instead of merely bringing buyers and sellers together started taking positions in the market.In other words, they started trading on their own account, and in a sense became market makers in some securities thereby imparting greater liquidity to the mar kets. ? When a bank wanted to conceal the fact that it was doing an RF deal, the broker came in handy. The broker provided contract notes for this purpose with fictitious counter parties, but arranged for the actual settlement to take place with the correct counter party. 2. Payment Cheques: ? A broker intermediated settlement allowed the broker to lay his hands on the cheque as it went from one bank to another through him.The hurdle now was to find a way of crediting the cheque to his account though it was drawn in favor of a bank and was crossed account payee. ? As it happens, it is purely a matter of banking custom that an account payee cheque is paid only to the payee mentioned on the cheque. In fact, exceptions were being made to this norm, well before the scam came to light. ? Privileged (corporate) customers were routinely allowed to credit account payee cheques in favour of a bank into their own accounts to avoid clearing delays, thereby reducing the interest lost on the amo unt. Normally, if a customer obtains a cheque in his own favour and deposits it into his own account, it may take a day or two for the cheque to be cleared and for the funds to become available to the customer. At 15% interest, the interest loss on a clearing delay of two days for a Rs. 100 crores cheque is about Rs. 8 lakhs. ? On the other hand, when banks make payments to each other by writing cheques on their account with the RBI, these cheques are cleared on the same day. ? The practice which thus emerged was that a customer would obtain a cheque drawn on the RBI favoring not himself but his bank.The bank would get the money and credit his account the same day. ? This was the practice which the brokers in the money market exploited to their benefit. 3. Dispensing the security: ? The brokers thus found a way of getting hold of the cheques as they went from one bank to another and crediting the amounts to their accounts. This effectively transformed an RF into a loan to a broker r ather than to a bank. ? But this, by itself, would not have led to the scam because the RF after all is a secured loan, and a secured loan to a broker is still secured. What was necessary now was to find a way of eliminating the security itself! There are three routes adopted for this purpose: 1. Some banks (or rather their officials) were persuaded to part with cheques without actually receiving securities in return. A simple explanation of this is that the officials concerned were bribed and/or negligent. A more intriguing possibility is that the banks' senior/top management were aware of this and turned a Nelson's eye to it to benefit from higher returns the brokers could offer by diverting the funds to the stock market. One must recognize that as long as the scam lasted, the banks benefited from such an arrangement.The management of banks might have been sorely tempted to adopt this route to higher profitability. 2. The second route was to replace the actual securities by a wort hless piece of paper – a fake Bank Receipt (BR). This is discussed in greater detail in the next section. 3. The third method was simply to forge the securities themselves. In many cases, PSU bonds were represented only by allotment letters rather than certificates on security paper. And it is easier to forge an allotment letter for Rs. 100 crores worth of securities than it is to forge a 100 rupee note!Outright forgery of this kind however accounted for only a very small part of the total funds misappropriated 3. Bank Receipt: ? In an RF deal, as we have discussed it so far, the borrowing bank delivers the actual securities to the lender and takes them back on repayment of the loan. In practice, however, this is not usually done. Instead, the borrower gives a Bank Receipt (BR) which serves three functions: ? The BR confirms the sale of securities. ? It acts as a receipt for the money received by the selling bank. Hence the name – bank receipt. ? It promises to deliver the securities to the buyer.It also states that in the meantime the seller holds the securities in trust for the buyer. ? In short, a BR is something like an IOU (I owe you securities! ), and the use of the BR de facto converts an RF deal into an unsecured loan. The lending bank no longer has the securities; it has only the borrower's assurance that the borrower has the securities which can/will be delivered if/when the need arises. BRs issued without Backing of Securities: ? As stated earlier, a BR is supposed to imply that the issuer actually has the securities and holds them in trust for the buyer.But in reality the issuer may not have the securities at all. ? There are two reasons why a bank may issue a BR, which is not backed by actual securities: 1. A bank may short sell securities, that is, it sells securities it does not have. This would be done if the bank thinks that the prices of these securities would decrease. Since this would be an outright sale (not an RF! ), the ban k issues a BR. When the securities do fall in value, the bank buys them at lower prices and discharges the BR by delivering the securities sold. Short selling in some form is an integral part of most bond markets in the world.It can be argued that some amount of shortselling subject to some degree of regulation is a desirable feature of a bond market. In our opinion, an outright sale using a BR, which is not backed by securities, is not harmful per se though it violates the RBI guidelines. 2. The second reason is that the bank may simply want an unsecured loan. It may then do an RF deal issuing a â€Å"fake† BR which is a BR without any securities to back them. The lending bank would be under a mistaken impression that it is making a secured loan when it is actually advancing an unsecured loan.Obviously, lenders should have taken measures to protect themselves from such a possibility During the scam, the brokers perfected the art of using fake BRs to obtain unsecured loans fr om the banking system. They persuaded some small and little known banks – the Bank of Karad (BOK) and the Metropolitan Cooperative Bank (MCB) – to issue BRs as and when required. These BRs could then be used to do RF deals with other banks. The cheques in favour of BOK were, of course, credited into the brokers' accounts. In effect, several arge banks made huge unsecured loans to the BOK/MCB which in turn made the money available to the brokers. 4. Breakdown of the Control system in scam: ? The scam was made possible by a complete breakdown of the control system both within the commercial banks as well as the control system of the RBI itself. ? We shall examine these control systems to understand how these failed to function effectively and what lessons can be learnt to prevent failure of control systems in the future. ? The internal control system of the commercial banks involves the following features: 1. Separation of Functions:The different aspects of securities tr ansactions of a bank, namely dealing, custody and accounting are carried out by different persons. 2. Counterparty Limits: The moment an RF deal is done on the basis of a BR rather than actual securities, the lending bank has to contend with the possibility that the BR received may not be backed by any/adequate securities. In effect, therefore, it may be making an unsecured loan, and it must do the RF only if it is prepared to make an unsecured loan. This requires assessing the creditworthiness of the borrower and assigning him a â€Å"credit limit† up to which the bank is prepared to lend.Technically, this is known as a counterparty limit. 5. Other Aspects of the scam: ? There are several aspects of the scam which are closely related to the securities markets, but which are different from the operational aspect of the markets. ? These pertain to information that can cause significant changes in the prices of securities as well as the information supplied by the commercial ba nks on their financial performance. ? On each occasion the coupon rate was increased by 1/2%, thereby raising the coupon rate from 11. 5% to 13% during this ten month period.The major implication of raising interest rate on new borrowings is that it would trigger a fall in the market prices of the old loans which are pegged at the old (lower) interest rates. The price of the 11. 5% Government Loan 2010 dropped by 3% to 5% with each coupon rate hike. If anyone has advance information about these changes in the coupon rates, he could make enormous amounts of riskless profit by short selling the old securities just before the announcement of rate hike and buying back (covering his position) after the prices have fallen. ? Somebody who took a short position of Rs. 00 crores before the coupon hike of September 1991 could have made a profit of Rs. 15 crores, practically overnight! Since several persons in the Finance Ministry and the RBI are likely to be aware of the impending hike in the coupon rate, the chance of leakage of this all important information is always there. ? There have been several allegations in this regard. However, it will probably be very difficult to prove with any degree of certainty that there was insider trading based on information about coupon rate changes, because of the size of the market. With a daily trading volume of Rs. 3000 – 4000 crores, it would have been very easy for anyone to take a position (based on inside information) of Rs. 500 or even Rs. 1000 crores without anyone suspecting anything untoward. 6. Impact of the scam: ? The immediate impact of the scam was a sharp fall in the share prices. The index fell from 4500 to 2500 representing a loss of Rs. 100,000 crores in market capitalization. [pic] ? Since the accused were active brokers in the stock markets, the number of shares which had passed through their hands in the last one year was colossal.All these shares became â€Å"tainted† shares, and overnight they became worthless pieces of paper as they could not be delivered in the market. Genuine investors who had bought these shares well before the scam came to light and even got them registered in their names found themselves being robbed by the government. This resulted in a chaotic situation in the market since no one was certain as to which shares were tainted and which were not. ? The government's liberalization policies came under severe criticism after the scam, with Harshad Mehta and others being described as the products of these policies. Bowing to the political pressures and the bad press it received during the scam, the liberalization policies were put on hold for a while by the government. The Securities Exchange Board of India (SEBI) postponed sanctioning of private sector mutual funds. ? The much talked about entry of foreign pension funds and mutual funds became more remote than ever. The Euro-issues planned by several Indian companies were delayed since the ability of In dian companies to raise equity capital in world markets was severely compromised. Harshad Mehta Scam Harshad Mehta scam: Harshad Mehta  was an Indian stockbroker and is alleged to have engineered the rise in the BSE stock exchange in the year 1992. Exploiting several loopholes in the banking system, Harshad and his associates siphoned off funds from inter-bank transactions and bought shares heavily at a premium across many segments, triggering a rise in the Sensex. When the scheme was exposed, the banks started demanding the money back, causing the collapse. He was later charged with 72 criminal offenses and more than 600 civil action suits were filed against him.He died in 2002 with many litigations still pending against him. 3. 1 Ready Forward Deal (RF): †¢ The crucial mechanism through which the scam was effected was the Ready Forward deal. †¢ The Ready Forward Deal (RF) is in essence a secured short term (typically 15 day) loan from one bank to another bank. The lending is done against Government Securities exactly the way a pawnbroker lends against jewelry. †¢ In fact one can say that the borrowing bank actually sells the securities to the lending bank and buys them back at the end of the period of the loan at (typically) a slightly higher price. It was this RF deal that Harshad Mehta and his associates used with great success to channel money from banking system. 3. 2 The Mechanics of the Scam: As explained above, a ready forward deal is, in substance, a secured loan from one bank to another.To make the scam possible , the RF had to undergo a complete change. In other words it practically had to become an unsecured loan to broker. This was wonderfully engineered by the brokers. To give a better understanding of the mechanism, the whole process has been segregated into 3 different parts. . The settlement process 2. Payment cheques 3. Dispensing the security 1. The settlement Process: ? The normal settlement process in government securities is that the transacting banks make payments and deliver the securities directly to each other. ? Dur ing the scam, however, the banks or at least some banks adopted an alternative settlement process which was similar to the process used for settling transactions in the stock market. ? In this settlement process, deliveries of securities and payments are made through the broker.That is, the seller hands over the securities to the broker who passes them on to the buyer, while the buyer gives the cheque to the broker who then makes the payment to the seller. ? In this settlement process, the buyer and the seller may not even know whom they have traded with, both being known only to the broker. ? There were two important reasons why the broker intermediated settlement began to be used in the government securities markets. ? The brokers instead of merely bringing buyers and sellers together started taking positions in the market.In other words, they started trading on their own account, and in a sense became market makers in some securities thereby imparting greater liquidity to the mar kets. ? When a bank wanted to conceal the fact that it was doing an RF deal, the broker came in handy. The broker provided contract notes for this purpose with fictitious counter parties, but arranged for the actual settlement to take place with the correct counter party. 2. Payment Cheques: ? A broker intermediated settlement allowed the broker to lay his hands on the cheque as it went from one bank to another through him.The hurdle now was to find a way of crediting the cheque to his account though it was drawn in favor of a bank and was crossed account payee. ? As it happens, it is purely a matter of banking custom that an account payee cheque is paid only to the payee mentioned on the cheque. In fact, exceptions were being made to this norm, well before the scam came to light. ? Privileged (corporate) customers were routinely allowed to credit account payee cheques in favour of a bank into their own accounts to avoid clearing delays, thereby reducing the interest lost on the amo unt. Normally, if a customer obtains a cheque in his own favour and deposits it into his own account, it may take a day or two for the cheque to be cleared and for the funds to become available to the customer. At 15% interest, the interest loss on a clearing delay of two days for a Rs. 100 crores cheque is about Rs. 8 lakhs. ? On the other hand, when banks make payments to each other by writing cheques on their account with the RBI, these cheques are cleared on the same day. ? The practice which thus emerged was that a customer would obtain a cheque drawn on the RBI favoring not himself but his bank.The bank would get the money and credit his account the same day. ? This was the practice which the brokers in the money market exploited to their benefit. 3. Dispensing the security: ? The brokers thus found a way of getting hold of the cheques as they went from one bank to another and crediting the amounts to their accounts. This effectively transformed an RF into a loan to a broker r ather than to a bank. ? But this, by itself, would not have led to the scam because the RF after all is a secured loan, and a secured loan to a broker is still secured. What was necessary now was to find a way of eliminating the security itself! There are three routes adopted for this purpose: 1. Some banks (or rather their officials) were persuaded to part with cheques without actually receiving securities in return. A simple explanation of this is that the officials concerned were bribed and/or negligent. A more intriguing possibility is that the banks' senior/top management were aware of this and turned a Nelson's eye to it to benefit from higher returns the brokers could offer by diverting the funds to the stock market. One must recognize that as long as the scam lasted, the banks benefited from such an arrangement.The management of banks might have been sorely tempted to adopt this route to higher profitability. 2. The second route was to replace the actual securities by a wort hless piece of paper – a fake Bank Receipt (BR). This is discussed in greater detail in the next section. 3. The third method was simply to forge the securities themselves. In many cases, PSU bonds were represented only by allotment letters rather than certificates on security paper. And it is easier to forge an allotment letter for Rs. 100 crores worth of securities than it is to forge a 100 rupee note!Outright forgery of this kind however accounted for only a very small part of the total funds misappropriated 3. Bank Receipt: ? In an RF deal, as we have discussed it so far, the borrowing bank delivers the actual securities to the lender and takes them back on repayment of the loan. In practice, however, this is not usually done. Instead, the borrower gives a Bank Receipt (BR) which serves three functions: ? The BR confirms the sale of securities. ? It acts as a receipt for the money received by the selling bank. Hence the name – bank receipt. ? It promises to deliver the securities to the buyer.It also states that in the meantime the seller holds the securities in trust for the buyer. ? In short, a BR is something like an IOU (I owe you securities! ), and the use of the BR de facto converts an RF deal into an unsecured loan. The lending bank no longer has the securities; it has only the borrower's assurance that the borrower has the securities which can/will be delivered if/when the need arises. BRs issued without Backing of Securities: ? As stated earlier, a BR is supposed to imply that the issuer actually has the securities and holds them in trust for the buyer.But in reality the issuer may not have the securities at all. ? There are two reasons why a bank may issue a BR, which is not backed by actual securities: 1. A bank may short sell securities, that is, it sells securities it does not have. This would be done if the bank thinks that the prices of these securities would decrease. Since this would be an outright sale (not an RF! ), the ban k issues a BR. When the securities do fall in value, the bank buys them at lower prices and discharges the BR by delivering the securities sold. Short selling in some form is an integral part of most bond markets in the world.It can be argued that some amount of shortselling subject to some degree of regulation is a desirable feature of a bond market. In our opinion, an outright sale using a BR, which is not backed by securities, is not harmful per se though it violates the RBI guidelines. 2. The second reason is that the bank may simply want an unsecured loan. It may then do an RF deal issuing a â€Å"fake† BR which is a BR without any securities to back them. The lending bank would be under a mistaken impression that it is making a secured loan when it is actually advancing an unsecured loan.Obviously, lenders should have taken measures to protect themselves from such a possibility During the scam, the brokers perfected the art of using fake BRs to obtain unsecured loans fr om the banking system. They persuaded some small and little known banks – the Bank of Karad (BOK) and the Metropolitan Cooperative Bank (MCB) – to issue BRs as and when required. These BRs could then be used to do RF deals with other banks. The cheques in favour of BOK were, of course, credited into the brokers' accounts. In effect, several arge banks made huge unsecured loans to the BOK/MCB which in turn made the money available to the brokers. 4. Breakdown of the Control system in scam: ? The scam was made possible by a complete breakdown of the control system both within the commercial banks as well as the control system of the RBI itself. ? We shall examine these control systems to understand how these failed to function effectively and what lessons can be learnt to prevent failure of control systems in the future. ? The internal control system of the commercial banks involves the following features: 1. Separation of Functions:The different aspects of securities tr ansactions of a bank, namely dealing, custody and accounting are carried out by different persons. 2. Counterparty Limits: The moment an RF deal is done on the basis of a BR rather than actual securities, the lending bank has to contend with the possibility that the BR received may not be backed by any/adequate securities. In effect, therefore, it may be making an unsecured loan, and it must do the RF only if it is prepared to make an unsecured loan. This requires assessing the creditworthiness of the borrower and assigning him a â€Å"credit limit† up to which the bank is prepared to lend.Technically, this is known as a counterparty limit. 5. Other Aspects of the scam: ? There are several aspects of the scam which are closely related to the securities markets, but which are different from the operational aspect of the markets. ? These pertain to information that can cause significant changes in the prices of securities as well as the information supplied by the commercial ba nks on their financial performance. ? On each occasion the coupon rate was increased by 1/2%, thereby raising the coupon rate from 11. 5% to 13% during this ten month period.The major implication of raising interest rate on new borrowings is that it would trigger a fall in the market prices of the old loans which are pegged at the old (lower) interest rates. The price of the 11. 5% Government Loan 2010 dropped by 3% to 5% with each coupon rate hike. If anyone has advance information about these changes in the coupon rates, he could make enormous amounts of riskless profit by short selling the old securities just before the announcement of rate hike and buying back (covering his position) after the prices have fallen. ? Somebody who took a short position of Rs. 00 crores before the coupon hike of September 1991 could have made a profit of Rs. 15 crores, practically overnight! Since several persons in the Finance Ministry and the RBI are likely to be aware of the impending hike in the coupon rate, the chance of leakage of this all important information is always there. ? There have been several allegations in this regard. However, it will probably be very difficult to prove with any degree of certainty that there was insider trading based on information about coupon rate changes, because of the size of the market. With a daily trading volume of Rs. 3000 – 4000 crores, it would have been very easy for anyone to take a position (based on inside information) of Rs. 500 or even Rs. 1000 crores without anyone suspecting anything untoward. 6. Impact of the scam: ? The immediate impact of the scam was a sharp fall in the share prices. The index fell from 4500 to 2500 representing a loss of Rs. 100,000 crores in market capitalization. [pic] ? Since the accused were active brokers in the stock markets, the number of shares which had passed through their hands in the last one year was colossal.All these shares became â€Å"tainted† shares, and overnight they became worthless pieces of paper as they could not be delivered in the market. Genuine investors who had bought these shares well before the scam came to light and even got them registered in their names found themselves being robbed by the government. This resulted in a chaotic situation in the market since no one was certain as to which shares were tainted and which were not. ? The government's liberalization policies came under severe criticism after the scam, with Harshad Mehta and others being described as the products of these policies. Bowing to the political pressures and the bad press it received during the scam, the liberalization policies were put on hold for a while by the government. The Securities Exchange Board of India (SEBI) postponed sanctioning of private sector mutual funds. ? The much talked about entry of foreign pension funds and mutual funds became more remote than ever. The Euro-issues planned by several Indian companies were delayed since the ability of In dian companies to raise equity capital in world markets was severely compromised.

Bathroom and Rituals

Nacirema HR 582 Managing Global Diversity Patsy A. Shepherd March 22, 2012 In Body Ritual Among the Nacirema, Horace Miner writes about the strange rituals that people do in America. While reading the story I was almost fooled, but as read further I realized the spoof of Nacirema; Nacirema is American spelled backwards and the references in the myth are the backward strange American everyday rituals. Miner’s word usage made it obvious it was just a myth, words like magical, fascination, bewitched, and mythology gave it away.Miner portrays Americans as a tribe that go through their daily life by performing painful and needed rituals to their bodies. It is not obvious at the beginning of the case study that the tribe Miner is talking about is American people. The rituals they perform mainly focus on the human body, and if Americans skip these rituals we will have a nasty society of individuals. (Miner disguises the bathroom as a cleaning shrine, the medicine chest as the major d evice in the shrine and the hair on a stick as a toothbrush.He describes the shrine as a private and secret place where cleansing and makeup rituals take place. The box and the chest have charms and potions from the medicine men). Harvey, C & Allard, J (2005) Understanding and Managing Diversity: readings, cases and exercises Pearson Prentice Hall 4th edition p. 19 Rituals are ceremonies and most rituals have a purpose. In my observation of Nacirema I want to know why the tribe conducts these types’ rituals. How are the rituals performed? Where are the rituals performed?Tribal rituals play a large part of everyday life in the Nacirema and American culture. Rituals are what we do on a regular basis, repeated over time; that which bring people together; shared beliefs; and loyalty. Many of the events that occur in day to day life in Nacirema are just past down customs, rituals, and beliefs. Many of our customs are a belief system past down from generation to generation. So thei r customs, rituals, and beliefs, are their basis of structure for their entire village, and society. We can’t live without customs, rituals, and beliefs.Without customs, beliefs, and rituals, the people of Nacirema have no explanation for living, or being on Earth. Without customs, there is no reason for doing anything we do. Customs stem from our beliefs, so we have to believe in something. While spending time in Nacirema I realized we have some of the same customs and beliefs. Nacirema’s shrine with a box or chest in the wall is just a bathroom with a medicine cabinet. Small bundles of hog hairs and certain magical powers are simply toothbrushes and toothpaste. Holy Mouth Men are Dentist.Highly formalized series of gestures is the art of brushing teeth. The box and the chest have charms and potions from the medicine men are doctors writing the prescriptions we keep in our medicine cabinets. During my fieldwork in Nacirema from December 2011 to February 2012, I concen trated on investigating the main principles governing Nacirema’s culture. I did my research before arriving in the village, so I didn’t quite know what to expect. I was quite anxious so I interviewed the tribe individually, I asked each individual to tell me what happens in Nacirema on a typical day?How do you feel about me being here? What can you tell me about how Nacirema developed? What do you think should be different, if anything? Also give me just a little background on Nacirema as far as government policies, tourism, business opportunities, and brief me on customs. After my interview session, I learned that these crude rituals are just a sequence of daily activities involving gestures, words, and objects, performed on a daily basis. These daily activities are no different from the daily activities that individuals in America perform on a daily basis.Most individuals spend a lot of time in the bathroom bathing, brushing their teeth, applying makeup, and combing their hair. Would this be considered a ritual? Of course not to me or you it’s just our daily routine. This routine was passed down from my parents to me and to my children the art of hygiene. My three months of fieldwork in Nacirema was no different from my day to day in America, I actually over stayed my welcome, but I didn't want to rush my process. I wanted my evaluations to be honest and I also didn’t want my personal opinions or issues to cloud my judgment.In conclusion I found that Nacirema myths are truths in America. (Notgnishaw, the Pa-To-Mac, and the cherry tree with the Spirit of Truth mean America lies between Canada and Mexico. The Ancient Code/Secret Language true meaning refers to the joke that a doctor’s handwriting is illegible, particularly on prescriptions. An Herbalist is just a Pharmacist. Ritual ablution of the mouth for children true meaning describes cleaning their mouths out with soap if they say something wrong. Men scraping and lacera ting the surface of the face with a sharp instrument is shaving.Women bake their heads in small ovens for about an hour is an old-fashioned hair dryer at a beauty salon. Latipsoh true meaning is a hospital. Thaumaturge and group of vestal maidens are Doctor and nurses. A magic wand in the supplicant’s mouth is a Thermometer. A listener is the local Psychologist. The sociological standpoint is that culture is based on rituals and that each culture defines its reality and acceptable behavior and chooses its authorities by rituals). Miner, Horace â€Å"Body Ritual Among the Nacirema†. Retrieved from http://www. westminster. edu/staff/brennie/wpgroup4/brotn. html on March 20, 2012

Bald Soprano Research Paper

A Cycle, A Cycle, A Cycle No one is bald, nor is there a singing soprano. So what is going on in Ionesco’s The Bald Soprano? Ionesco slowly strips his characters of all things that define them: religion, roots, the way in which they communicate and at times, even the functioning of their brains. Thus creating blank humans with no individual character who are useless and absurd. Now these people with no concrete definition to their being are to live in this gigantic world to the best of their ability. Their lives aren’t normal ones.Ionesco brings out the absurdity in his characters by excluding any solid foundation or motivation for living on earth. One very important form of guidance on life’s journey is Time. If there was no concept of time then all chaos would ensue and no one would know when anything is to be done. It is also a key factor to know how to live and work alongside time: to work with it, not against it. Will they be able to live in some sense of no rmality or will they be off on their own supernova to be absurd for evermore.Through the use of symbolism, irony and dialogue, Eugene Ionesco’s, The Bald Soprano conveys the idea that life is a never-ending cycle to express the absurdity of the human condition. The cycle of life is symbolized through the clock to reveal that the characters are stuck in an endless loop of time. The clock seems to take on a life all its own. It seems to decide when it wants to ring and how many times. The clock rings in a way that is quite shocking to the audience. This is because in the real world a clock does not normally ring 17 times. Nor is it normal for it to shoot out random times that don’t even go in order.In only one moment â€Å" The clock strikes seven times. Silence. The clock strikes three times. Silence† (The Bald Soprano 2). There seems to be no set regimen for time to follow. Time in the play is unorganized and almost absent in its common purpose. In no possible w ay could these characters even have the smallest possible chance of some normal routine when they have no constant to guide them through. Yes, Time is present but it is not the way in which we calculate it. There is no repeating pattern in this aspect and yet it still proceeds on which causes an endless loop of lunacy from which they cannot escape.The peculiar thing about it is the characters are not even finding it odd, as this is their notion of normalcy. In the play â€Å"the abnormal is treated as if it were thoroughly normal† (knowlson). And its funny because they don’t even realize that it never rings the same way or goes in a repeating pattern. The clock is random. It intrudes illogically. There is no logic in the Smith’s lives. The concept of reality is being distorted and no ounce of sense remains. The characters are flat, broad and general, which clearly emphasizes the absurdity of the human condition: trying to find a meaning and purpose to life.Even the primary characters last name, which is Smith, is so plain and typical. The plays cyclical structure accentuates repetition of the illogical happenings in the incompatible world in which the Smiths, Martins, the Maid and the Fire Chief live in. The play includes a â€Å"circular trajectory that ends where it began† (Kraus), thus causing the whole disordered cycle to start over and where the characters are involuntarily perplexed for all eternity. The characters live in a world of irony. They are lost in a continuum of memory loss without even realizing that they are losing their minds.Considering they don’t realize, they have no recollection of what has been going on around them and therefore not knowing what their purpose is in being where they are. This constant back and forth concept is for one, ironic because they have no memory of no longer having memory, but it is also mind-boggling. Mrs. Smith says, â€Å"We were expecting them. And we were hungry. Since the y didn't put in an appearance, we were going to start dinner without them. We've had nothing to eat all day† (The Bald Soprano 4). Mrs. Smith said she and Mr. Smith were going to eat but they didn’t.The characters can’t even remember what decisions they made and can’t remember to follow them. There is no stable element to guide them along a steady path. In the real world our memories our like our personal book of stories that hold the events that have happened in our lives. It defines us as a person of who we are in the past as well as who we are now. We as humans also interpret things we experience differently and remember things in different ways. Though we rely on our memory and mind quite heavily, who says it is a reliable resource to begin with?Ionesco is pointing towards the idea that our minds can’t possibly do everything for us as well as remember anything and everything we want it to. Unreliability of the memory is a concept that Ionesco wa nts us to take a look at, and that is a natural human failure that is part of our absurdity. As seen in The Bald Soprano the mind isn’t always a dependable tool that is conducive to everyday living. Our experiences make up our life’s journey and define our being. Ionesco’s characters do not know who they are and their purpose for living. At the end of the play the two couples switch places.The Smiths become the Martins and the Martins the Smiths. This results â€Å"in a da capo conclusion [with] the words that had been spoken by the Smiths at the beginning of the play [are now being spoken by the Martins]† (Knowlson). It’s ironic how they repeat the story but as different people but with the same name, because what is the purpose of having a name and being somebody if anyone can be anyone? Ionesco brings out inconsistency, which is a major factor in the play and possibly a factor in our lives. Without consistency the lives in which we lead would la ck substance and meaning.Ionesco suggests the idea of a normal daily schedule in which a human being can follow and keep order is a necessity. The human condition may seem absurd at times because what really is the point in doing the same thing everyday for as long as we live? The answer is, the consistency in the constant never ending cycle is life, which is why we are living. There may be nonsense in the play but somehow it leads to sense. The ironic statements due to memory loss show the absurdity in which humans possess. Mr. Smith is one who can be categorized as so.Without his memory he puts out ironic phrases without even putting thought to it and this leads to a lack of sentence structure. The play is made up of dialogue that sometimes seems to lack a sense of logic. The language in the play decreases in substance as the play progresses. The â€Å"language flows independently from meaning† (Feal). The words are not communicating what they seem to say but rather the und erlying meaning, which is found in the way the language is used or how really how it is informally used. Language and meaning march to the beat of a different drum.The words are separate entities that work independently yet together to convey Ionesco’s view on language, which is that it is made out to be more than what it is really worth. Language is used as a communicator and the order, or lack of it, in which words are placed, conveys a message of pure insanity. The characters â€Å"actions contradict words, and [their] words contradict [their] actions. Even the title is misleading, since there is no bald soprano in the play† (Esteban). Ionesco writes where there is meaning in no meaning, so he probably intended on writing with meaning all along.The characters talk just to talk and they really have nothing of importance to say. As the play drags on while the structure becomes less and less until dialogue has lost all value and â€Å"made into mere exchange† (K nowlson). The words on the page are out of content and have become particles of matter that are floating in the air. The more they talk, the less they are actually communicating and this is causing the precious tool of language to no longer articulate. Like when Mr. Smith states â€Å"The pope elopes! The pope's got no horoscope.The horoscope's bespoke† (The Bald Soprano 17). The play starts out with sentences that make no sense at all then it breaks down to just words without meaning until finally all that is left is a bunch of frenzied sounds. The characters have gotten quite angry that they lost all ability to communicate that their chatter swells up into mushy sound. They live in a never-ending cycle of insignificant discourse. This is Ionesco pointing out the absurdity of how humans converse. The Bald Soprano is a piece under the genre of the Absurd. It is very easy to see why.In this genre a common aspect is that the characters are rapt in an endlessly repeating cycle. This cycle usually leads nowhere as it is a cycle with no beginning and no end. Ionesco uses this cycle to emulate life. Life is filled with a bunch of meaningless things that fill our everyday lives. Banana. When something is of meaning we know because we have experienced the everyday typical life of a human. Broadway. Dreams. Goals. That’s what we are. Well that’s what we should be. Life is pretty much repeating. Repeating. Repeating. Repeating. We have a set way of doing things and we follow it.We repeat these actions to fill up our lives with substance so that there is at least something there to start with and so that we have the ability to move forward and continue. Think of it as muscles. Muscles give our body substance to stand up and it is what allows us to move as well as other necessary functions. In our world we use a clock to stay in touch with time. Time. Timing. Bad timing. Time is a fundamental concept that guides humans through life, gives structure, a s well as ages and heals. We also say funny things sometimes and we do use a language to communicate. It is how we use all these things that matters.

Christianity 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Christianity 1 - Essay Example Poverty no doubt is one of the elements that is widespread in society. Jesus took the initiative to address the issue of poverty. Before Christianity people had different standards that defined poverty. Poverty was considered obviously to be bad and saw a person in poverty as insignificant one. However, Jesus took a different approach towards poverty. Jesus saw this as a test and said â€Å"Blessed are the poor in spirit†. Clearly, Jesus is emphasizing the fact that the poor will reach salvation and have strong faith. Moreover, Jesus goes on to say that being physically poor is completely different from being spiritually deprived. There may be a man who is deprived of nutrition, is exhausted, fatigue but can still possess an ego and have arrogance. However, a person with humbleness and poor soul is modest and will be forgiven for any minor sins. Spiritual poverty was a concept that was heavily emphasized in this sermon, and Jesus constantly persuaded his followers to be humble , modest, and to be compassionate. Jesus was a huge advocate of prayer. This could be perfectly illustrated through his statement in which he states, â€Å"If he prays, his prayer will not be compulsory, but a declaration of love which expresses the inner feelings that come from the heart and not from the lips.† In essence, Jesus is saying that prayers are necessary to reach spiritual salvation.

Write a play. RELIGION Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Write a play. RELIGION - Coursework Example This may be contrary to Jewish states which are run in accordance to Jewish law through special administrative courts. Individuals from Jewish background easily co-exist with others despite their conservative nature towards their beliefs. This shows why currently, the major secular Jewish defense agencies incorporate personnel capable and devoted to handling interfaith affairs. They create opportunities where members of other faith religions are allowed to discuss and dialogue. David: Health care providers focus on giving appropriate care to patients from different religious backgrounds. This calls for nurses to acquire as much knowledge as they can concern various religious beliefs and their cultural practices for the purposes of providing quality healthcare. Common "religions often encountered within health care domains are Baha’ism, Buddhism and Sikhism" (Puchalski and Romer, 2000). However, such religions share a number of similarities and differences. Diversity in religio ns and faith belief systems provides enough challenges within the health care sector. However, health care providers are endowed with "responsibility of showing acceptance of diversity of various belief expressions" (Puchalski and Romer, 2000). Hussein: According to Sikh religion, health and healing are directly related to spirituality since they believe in the intricate relationship between body, spirit and mind. Within the same line of belief, body is believed to serve the purpose of housing the spirit, which ultimately connects people with God. Sikh religion majorly believes in meditation, which forms an integral part of daily livelihood from family and on an individual level (Puchalski and Romer, 2000). Husein: Sikh contains prayers meant specifically for one's healing and peace, which are provided in form of hymns. Prayer is believed to have powers necessary for acquiring courage, hope, acceptance and understanding of deep meaning of illness. According to the religion, God carr ies out his will on sicknesses either through prayer or traditional medicine. Some believers prefer to accept God’s will rather than follow medical prescriptions from physicians. They are at liberty to combine Western medicine with traditional herbs as well as other available therapies. There are extensive teachings on destructive nature of illicit drugs, which according to Sikh, should be avoided by all means since they are believed to interfere with body functions, hence detrimental in the process of pursuing godly life. The religion partly allows issues on birth control since it is viewed as a form of disruption to natural cycle of life from different perspectives. (Puchalski and Romer, 2000). David: A meditation on the scriptures and prayer are considered to be of profound importance, which is done with the assistance of family members. Concepts of prayer and meditation can be performed in an active form by patients or they may be passive in form of hymns (Puchalski and R omer, 2000). All practices surrounding health care should give much attention to the holistic healing of the mind, body and spirit. Spiritual healing helps the process of identifying and appreciating the importance of an empowered life based on true self-worth. Healing experiences assists individuals in living lives that are limitless. Healing in the spirit as mentioned by most religions, demands leaving the concerns of the physical body and embracing the supernatural light. Husein: However, most of these experiences are extensively dealt with in the physical body. It is an important aspect for individuals to long for a recovery from a spiritual perspective. This assists medics in identifying the fact that malfunctioning body organs can be well rectified from the

Reagan Revolution Through President Obama Research Paper

Reagan Revolution Through President Obama - Research Paper Example The security threats within and outside the State were very much demanding the unanimous outbreak of the straightforward policies of the government but the political failure to take all parties on board also worsened the situations. Similarly one of the most important historical events was the cold war. The cold war ignited the hate culture between the Americans and the Russians and there was always a fight to stop the Russians to reach the hot water sea ports of South East Asia to minimize the chance of growth and put the fence to the stance of terror and hatred towards the American state. These importunate historical events shook the American policy making strategies andaffected the people on the overall grounds. The events continue to affect the people in some form or the other (Kettle, 2011). Changes in social, cultural and technologicalaspects can cause extensive changes Inthe attitude of the people because of the fact that the nirvana of intuitiveness of the technological progr essions of the modern world candrive the whole society in way that can change the pivotal aspects of the society for example the advent of the television technology has really changed the way of perception of the masses and now there is nothing in the sense of activity in the political corridors and important aspects that is hidden from the people. The elevation of social media around the world has also changed the attitudes of people. People can become more interactive and critical towards the general regimes around the world because everything is subject for open discussion in the social media and there is nothing that can be perceived in the wrong context. The changes and advancements in technology can drive the whole society in a specific way. The policies of government in the United States have effected largely on the social and historical aspects of people because of the fact that the government policy can embark huge effects on the vicinity of the people. For example the deci sion to take part in the cold war and support the Afghans back in eighties has changed the pivotal aspects of thoughts of people now. Most of the people are of the view that supporting the people of Afghanistan back in eighties was a wrong decision which has affected every single individual of the United States in some form or the other. Similarly, the policy to fund the technology park and boost up the technology advancement in the country has supported the people’s lives, created more jobs and elevated the progress of the individuals in all the contexts. The economic policies in the times of crunches have also affected the local living standards (Tradshad,, 2013). Being the â€Å"super power† has raised many questions at the legitimacy of American State affairs because of the fact that American has been at the threat of violence and internal conflicts after the furious 9/11 attacks that took 3,000 lives of the Americans and injured numerous. The effective winning of the Cold war back in nineties and the throttling effect of the incidents after that people have given the Americans a sense of responsibility to elevate the proper manifestation of the responsibilities of the Super power entity. The lives of the common man have not beeffected by turning of the American state into super power because there are augmented threats of terror

African American studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

African American studies - Essay Example The evolution of slavery aided in the development of a racist ideology that promoted the belief that blacks are inferior to whites, a myth that persisted long after slavery was abolished, and one that is deeply embedded within our national discourse. Cultural racism, such as this, fosters a â€Å"we† and â€Å"they† mentality, a state of mind that is maintained through the socialization of new generations. The abolition of slavery did not mean that blacks were accepted by the dominant white society. The racist ideology that emerged out of the slavery system continued to influence how whites perceived blacks. Wilson (1973) explains â€Å"Whites rejected slavery as an acceptable institution in the North but were unwilling to endorse the view that blacks should receive social, economic and political equality†, exemplifying how the negative belief systems of the plantations were deeply engrained in American culture after two hundred years of slavery. Unable to accept blacks as equals to themselves, white Americans relied increasingly upon the system of segregation, as a means to communicate the message.Segregation between blacks and whites was reinforced by a system of racial etiquette.The 1896 Supreme Court â€Å"separate but equal† decision failed to clearly define equality, and as a result, the separation of facilities for blacks and whites created a need to clarify the social positions of the dominant white class. ... Lynching was regularly employed as a means to enforce the status quo, with over thirty-six hundred cases recorded between 1884 and 1914. Relations between blacks and whites became increasingly violent in character during the World War I era in America’s history. Black workers were competing openly with whites for jobs and housing, causing tensions to rise between the two groups. Having been denied political participation and strictly segregated in nearly all areas of their social lives, blacks found that their socioeconomic opportunities were severely limited. Race riots occurred in several American cities and discontent among the black population continued to rise. These hostile conditions continued into the World War II period, when more jobs became available to black workers. In addition to the economic opportunities provided by WWII, the conditions under which it was fought allowed Americans to re-examine their own racist logic. The racist ideology practiced at home was in consistent with the ideals they fought for in the war against Nazi Germany, a racist regime. Also, according to Marger (1991) racist policies at home were viewed [Student 3] as an â€Å"international liability† (235) when dealing with non-white nations. These changes in the national racial attitude, along with the 1954 Supreme Court decision in the case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, helped push the advancement of black right civil rights. By the early 1970’s, the system of segregation had been fully dismantled and white supremacist groups, such as the Klu Klux Klan, were no longer supported. The historical relations between blacks and whites will remain in the collective narrative for many generations. America’s

US HISTORY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

US HISTORY - Essay Example With the beginning of this acute financial crisis, banks failed, companies shut down and the result was unemployment, loss of personal assets like land, house and other valuables. People who were well-off before the Depression lost everything and lived off from begging (Uys). The great depression completely disoriented the lives of the Americans forcing children and teenagers to give up studies and either take to begging or perform menial labour. Lack of fund resources, scarcity of food and water, and homeless existence affected social life resulting in broken homes, battered relationships and wavering convictions. Unemployment was at its peak with a record of 13 million people going jobless and living fringe life. A lot of people started moving down to the West which was not as badly affected. People could not pay fares and travelled illegally which came to be known as hobo. Hoboing and train hopping were common phenomena as more and more people travelled up and down in search of better life. Homelessness was another significant phenomenon of the time and was termed as Hoovervilles to condemn President Hoover. People could not provide to stay in proper houses and lived in shacks made of cardboard boxes, metal sheets, leftover wood, piano boxes, and rusted car bodies (Uys). The Great Depression taught people valuable lessons like self-reliance, compassion, frugality and love for freedom and one’s country (Uys). These values acted as the bedrocks on which developed a stronger and more resilient

Morality based on consequences (like utilitarianism) or morality based Essay

Morality based on consequences (like utilitarianism) or morality based on duties - Essay Example On the other hand, the Morality based on consequences (like utilitarianism ethics), provides that the consequence of an action that an individual has taken outweighs whatever intentions such an individual had when taking the action (Vaughn, 2012). Therefore, the Morality based on consequences, for example utilitarianism ethical theory, provides that an action is defined as either morally right or wrong, depending on whether the action produces favorable or unfavorable outcomes (Vaughn, 2012). In this respect, the utilitarianism theory of ethics provide that the outcome of an action should not be undermined, and thus individuals should first measure the possible consequences of an action before taking it. This way, the individuals will only take the action that has favorable outcomes for them and for everyone (Vaughn, 2012). Therefore, given an opportunity to choose between the morality based on consequences (like utilitarianism) and morality based on duties, separated from consequences (like Kants ethics), morality based on consequences (like utilitarianism) will be preferred. The choice of the utilitarianism ethical theory over the Kantian ethics is informed by the fact that; the utilitarianism ethical theory recognizes that any action may have either good or bad consequences; or both good and bad consequences at the same time (Vaughn, 2012). In recognition of this fact, the utilitarianism ethical theory provides that individuals should first weigh the possible consequences of their actions, such that they can determine the favorable and the unfavorable consequences. Further, the utilitarianism ethical theory provides that on the event that an action produces both good and bad consequences; the individual should weigh which one of the two weighs out heavily, and then act upon the action that will have an overall weighty favorable

My Synthetic Journey Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

My Synthetic Journey - Essay Example I say again "The streets are always wet, my ashes can hardly fly and make a nuisance of my dark overcoat". But it is a matter of no importance, I decided then and there. The wet floor becomes puddles at places, and I try to skip them by and nibble at the only question that nags my mind "Am I really regular" I try to dally with the answer for bedtime soporific musings. Then I think, If I must go home now, there will be so much to do with the rest of the day. For instance, I will have to avoid being alone amidst the whole of the neighborhood, praying before dinner, holding hands across fences or already making love in their kitchen. In the street, I only need to fear the rain and the sky that is chequered with the fate of the stars. It is never regular and yet always the forgotten limit. The street is now a little darker; every window looks warm and lost in velvety warmth that has withstood the daylights assault. There! that's my home, my house, and my shelter. I will have the darkness to stir from the porch to the bed till I leave a wake of flooded ennui. I am lost within my own rhythm of chores. A sensitized journey along the streets to the unique shelter that I call my home is undergone and homeostasis is reached for the day until the day begins again and I start from the same point. I was supposed to know you by name, but I shall call you 'My synthetic journey'.

Persuasive speaking PowerPoint Presentation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Persuasive speaking - PowerPoint Presentation Example The crucial message to emphasize actually is that it is never too late to finish what one has started; meaning, there is value in finishing one’s education. Why do students drop out in the first place? There are a multitude of rationales for dropping out. The reasons range from personal problems, family concerns, transportation dilemmas and academic issues. Furger, in his article entitled How to End the Drop Out Crisis (2008), has identified several reasons why high school students opt to leave school without earning their high school diploma. Among those cited were: â€Å"(1) dropping out is the culmination of years of academic hurdles, missteps, and wrong turns; (2) it is a response to conflicting life pressures -- the need to help support their family financially or the demands of caring for siblings or their own child; (3) students become bored and see no connection between academic life and "real" life; (4) young people feel disconnected from their peers and from teacher s and other adults at school; and (5) schools and communities have too few resources to meet the complex emotional and academic needs of their most vulnerable youth.† By being aware of these reasons, parents, teachers, school administrators, the local community and the nation, as a whole, should look for appropriate measures to address the root causes for dropping out especially as it has serious implications to the economy. The research conducted by The Alliance for Excellent Education (2007) highlighted that dropouts are a financial drain on the economies of each state and the nation. Lower local, state, and national tax revenues are perhaps the most obvious consequence of higher dropout rates. Even when dropouts are employed, they earn significantly lower wages than graduates. State and local economies suffer further when they have less-educated populaces, as they find it more difficult to attract new business investment. Simultaneously, these entities must spend more on so cial programs when their populations have lower educational levels. Dropouts represent a tremendous waste of human potential and productivity, and reduce the nation’s ability to compete in an increasingly global economy. On the contrary, helping students realize the value of education by assisting them to graduate has economic and social benefits to society. Students who manage to graduate earning higher wages tantamount to resulting in attendant benefits to the local, state, and national economic conditions. Likewise, diverse research studies have validated the following advantages: high school graduates live longer (Muennig, 2005), are less likely to be teen parents (Haveman et al., 2001), and are more likely to raise healthier, better-educated children. In fact, children of parents who graduate from high school are themselves far more likely to graduate from high school than are children of parents without a high school degree (Wolfe & Haveman, 2002). High school graduates are also less likely to commit crimes (Raphael, 2004), rely on government health care (Muennig, 2005), or use other public services such as food stamps or housing assistance (Garfinkel et al., 2005). Additionally, high school graduates engage in civic activity, including voting and volunteering in their communities, at higher levels (Junn, 2005). A remuneration of the discourse reveals that there are obviously more benefits to be derived from seeking ways and means to ensue students stay in school until graduation than to

Compare and Contrast the Characteristics of a Growing and a Mature Product Market Essay Example for Free

Compare and Contrast the Characteristics of a Growing and a Mature Product Market Essay ‘Use extended examples to compare and contrast the characteristics of a growing and a mature product market. Regardless of the value of every product, they all progress through a product life cycle. The phase starts with the introduction of the product and gradually moves to growth, maturity and finally be replaced by new improved products or naturally decline. Each of these stages of product life cycle requires a different marketing mix and research. The life of a product is the period over which it appeals to customers. The sales performance of any product rises from nothing when the product is introduced to the market reaches a peak and then declines to nothing again. Examples of products that have had short lifespan in recent years are home computers. New models with new specifications are launched on the market rapidly to be replaced by newer models which is a similar story for mobile phones (ref: the times hundred business studies; Marketing Theory; online) Increase in the profit of the company is every businesses core goal. To reach the goal product life cycle management is vital. Some companies use strategic planning and others follow the basic rules of the different life cycle phase that are analysed later. The performance of the product has the main effect on the performance of every business from income to profit to cost recovery. Product life cycle helps business management decide which of its current products should receive more or less investment to ensure the business achieves its objectives. Let’s take an example of Apple iPhone: Introduction: Apple first introduces iPhone in Macworld San Francisco—January 9, 2007 (ref: Apple Press info; online). Growth: The apple iPhone sales for the year 2008 with 245% sales increase (ref: CNNMoney; iPhone sales grew 245% in 2008; online). Maturity: They introduced iPhone in other networks like 3G, 3Gs and Vodafone. Decline: iPhone 3G sold in cheaper price. Now they have moved from iPhone 3G to IPhone 4 and the latest iPhone 4 Siri. Apple first introduced iPhone in Macworld San Francisco—January 9, 2007. After its release iPhone made very good marketing sales in the stores. Many people lined up in front of the apple store to buy the newly released iPhone. Soon after its release apple had the sales of 6. 89 million (ref: CNNMoney; iPhone sales grew 245% in 2008; online). Apple used various promotional strategies to increase their market share. Their TV ads introduced people what their key features where and how they could be used. The first UK network to sell iPhone was O2 (ref; BBC news; O2 get iPhone contract in UK; online). After the partnership between the two business companies, O2 provided different monthly plan and tariffs for iPhone. More people where interested in buying iPhone in monthly plan and tariffs with O2. Apple also provided their customers with 1 Year free warranty for iPhone by which they managed to win trust and satisfaction from the customers. Because the iPhone was only supported by a single network 02, the company started to face decline in sale prices. They were at the maturity stage so; the iPhone brought different plan and ideas to boost up their sales again. In order to do so apple reduced price of iPhone. They made partnership with other networks like Vodafone (ref; BBC news; Vodafone enters UK iPhone market; online). Positive progress where then seen after they planned to join other networks and reduce the product price. In the time between 2009 and 2010 apple were able to sell 20, 731,000 iPhone. But they are rapidly doing there product development and now they have recently released iPhone 4s on 14th October 2011 (ref: techradar. com; apple iPhone 4S UK release date announced; online). Through the above different phases Apple has been able to establish itself a third position in the smartphone market share. This shows how different product phases can affect a company. As you can see iPhone had the popularity on the introduction and increased sales on the growing phase but it started to have fewer sales and went into maturity. At the maturity phase apple had to invest more on their product development and increase their sales and popularity. They had less income but more expenses as they had to implement development plans and strategies and increase advertisement. During the phases apple may not have been able to make profit but they gradually came up with new ideas and increased income. Summing up the product life cycle has a significant impact on the business strategy and performance including marketing and product development. It also helps the business determine when it’s reasonable to eliminate certain product, what are the consequences and also work on substituting it with new innovative product. But with the benefits there are also some limitations of product life cycle. As Products, companies and markets are different, so not all products or services go through every stage of the PLC. There have been many cases where products have gone straight from introduction to decline, usually because of bad marketing, misconceived features, lack of value to the consumer or simply a lack of need for such a product. However, even if products would go through every stage of the PLC, not all products/services spend the same length of time at each stage. This adds another level of complexity in determining which PLC stage the product is in and consequently, which strategy to apply (ref: marketing91. com; limitation PLC; online). Hence, there are both benefits and limitations of product life cycle and it has different effect on a company depending on which stage the product is and what strategy is to be implemented. The Product Life Cycle model is inefficient when dealing with Brands or Services. Brands are not products but do have a life cycle of their own, and products belonging to a certain brand will experience a very different life cycle than the brand itself. For example, Dell and Mercedes-Benz are very strong brands whose life cycle is marginally affected by the failure of any of the products, which they hold (ref: marketing91. com; limitation PLC; online).

Lung Cancer Patient

Lung Cancer Patient Lung Cancer One of the most common types of cancer is lung cancer or lung carcinoma which is a tumor that worsens and will continue to metastasize or spread if it is not prevented or given a cure. It does not usually appear in the age of forty years old and below. It is more pronounced in males than in females at the age of forty-five years old and above. Case studies show that around 80% of the women are now suffering from lung cancer. There are several risk factors that causes lung cancer such as inhalation of air pollution, radon gas, coming in contact with asbestos, arsenic and radiation for example are connected to the occurrence of lung cancer. Chances of inheriting lung cancer is small and being a second-hand smoker candidates a person to have lung cancer as well. Case studies show that cigarette smoking is the primary culprit for getting lung cancer. (Merck Manual, 2003) Lung cancer due to prolonged cigarette smoking and especially in large amounts slowly progresses into a tumor or cancer in the lung. The following case study is about a gentleman in his middle 60s and has lung cancer. Mr. Virgil T. Carter, the patient in this case study, lives on a farm outside a small rural town, Jefferson. There are only few medical services where he lives. He was diagnosed with a tumor located in the middle lobe of his right lung. He then struggles to get well through treatment by surgery, radiation therapy, proper nutrition, obtaining support from his family, physical adaptation to his condition and having a positive outlook. (Rodger M., 2008) The purpose of this study was to investigate what happens to the patient before, during and after his lung cancer treatment. The patients experiences with lung cancer will be stated. Accompanying research to support the facts will also be mentioned in this case study. Episode 1: a) Mr. Carters experiences: On July 12, 2007 Mr. Carter sought medical attention. It all started when the patient started coughing up blood seven days ago. On the first day it began, he coughed up blood three times in the amount of about 15ml separately. Symptoms set in where his coughing was regular for the past three months with no blood. He felt shortness of breath while wheezing. He felt tired and weak during that time. Three years ago, the patient would smoke about thirty packs per year then he stopped. He ate a well-balanced diet then. He drank three to four cans of alcohol every week and his overall physical state was normal until he was diagnosed with lung cancer. He is a father of three and a husband. He works as a farmer and is usually exposed to dust and would work about eight to twelve hours per day but then he had to stop three months ago due to the symptoms that he was experiencing. He loves interacting with other people and loves his work but he constantly felt the shortness of breath whenever he exerts force. The patient sought medical attention and was tested for hemoptysis and chest x-ray. He was co-operative with the medical staff and was informed that a lobectomy will be done. (Rodger M. Bruce R.N., 2008) b) My research: Mr. Carter shows the symptoms of a person suffering from lung cancer and it includes constant coughing that will not stop and it worsens if its prolonged and eventually, blood is expelled upon coughing. The patient will feel chest pains, feeling of tiredness, repeated shortness of breath in between wheezing, the patient gradually would lose interest in eating and eventually lose weight. (MedlinePlus, 1999) The patient is diagnosed through a chest x-ray where a shadow may be seen on the x-ray film, a Computed Tomography Scan shows nodules that the x-ray cannot show. A sputum examination may also be enough to provide adequate information for lung cancer. (Merck, 1995-2008) A lobectomy is a procedure wherein one entire lobe in the lung is removed. This will limit the spread of the lung cancer. (About.com, 2008) Episode 2: a) Mr. Carters experiences: On July 13, 2007, Mr. Carter underwent radiograph tests. On July 21, 2007 he underwent lobectomy. After the surgery, he said that he already wanted to go home. He feels that his health is improving. The patient wants to go home irregardless of his coughing. He was tolerating the therapy which was a good sign and healing of his wound was better. During physical therapy, the patient complains for pain in the chest and he was unable to sleep peacefully throughout the night. The patients lips have turned to the color of blue and so were his nail beds on his toes and fingers. He feels dizziness when he attempts to rise from his bed and he needed support when walking due to this and accompanied with shortness of breath. The patient co-operates with the medical staff even if he felt terrible with his condition. During physical therapy, the patient would respond by nodding his head for yes and would shake his head for no. He was in pain and felt too tired. The patient can already sit up in bed but he is still weak and easily exhausted even when hes asked to participate in light ADLs [activity of daily living]. He would tidy himself by washing his face and brushing his hair. He could eat just about one meal per week by himself. (Rodger M. Bruce R.N., 2008) b) My research: Post-surgery in lobectomy may allow a patient to be discharged from the hospital in a weeks time. Although, lobectomy may make a patient face the challenge to contract pneumonia, have bleeding, have an infection or they may experience adverse reactions to the medication or anesthesia used during the operating procedure. (About.com, 2008) Episode 3: a) Mr. Carters experiences: On August 2, 2007, Mr. Carter is feeling better, though his body still feels sore. He would only cough whenever he would take deep breaths and this causes pain to his chest. He doesnt have a fever and has been very co-operative by taking all of his medications. He doesnt eat a lot because he complains that it doesnt taste good. He would only finish half of his food and would feel tired during this time. Mr. Carter was provided a dietary plan to give him energy and heal properly. Mr. Carter is scheduled for radiation therapy at least two to four weeks after being discharged from the hospital. This will enable him to heal and recover properly. The patient has limited energy to move around or even do tasks. He feels a little pain when doing normal work. He feels calm and peaceful. He has a high energy level. He would fell downhearted and feel a little blue some of the time. The patient feels very badly since he doesnt do anything helpful but watch the television all day or spend the whole day in bed. The patient is affected emotionally by feeling hopeless and shortness of breath increased. This limited his movement once again. (Rodger M. Bruce R.N., 2008) b) My research: In the case of the patient, Mr. Carter, not only needs lobectomy, but he requires radiation therapy as well as not all of the cancer cells has been removed. At this stage, the patients body is still recovering and fighting the cancer cells. (Merck, 2008) Episode 4: a) Mr. Carters experiences: On January 29, 2007, Mr. Carter only feels a little shortness of breath when wheezing and no pain in the chest is felt. Though, he still feels weak and has withdrawn himself from the family by not joining in on their activities. Patient still doesnt feel like eating but he tries to consume a little food for energy. His weight has dropped because of inadequate intake of food. He feels tired most of the time. He has lesser periods of shortness of breath compared to what he felt before. He feels agitated when his wife tries to provide him care. This is probably due to the wifes attitude towards her husband because he doesnt do anything at home. He mentioned that he feels more energized compared to the previous appointment for Occupational Therapy. He can already dress and bathe all by himself. He would rest from time to time in the middle of his simple daily activities. (Rodger M. Bruce R.N., 2008) b) My research: Conclusion References Linda L.H. Steven T., Mark J. Lung Cancer Screening with Sputum Cytologic Examination, Chest Radiography, and Computed Tomography: An Update for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. American College of Physicians. Annals of Internal Medicine. 4 May 2004. 29 January 2008. http://www.annals.org/cgi/content/abstract/140/9/740 Lung Cancer: Cancer of the Lungs. Merck Manual Home Edition.1995-2008. 29 January 2008. http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec04/ch057/ch057a.html#sec04- ch057-ch057a-894 Lung Carcinoma: Tumors of the Lungs. Merck Manual Professional. 1995-2008. 29 January 2008. http://www.merck.com/mmpe/sec05/ch062/ch062b.html#sec05- ch062-ch062b-1379 Lung Cancer symptoms treatment information research charity Association For International Cancer Research 2004-2005. 29 January 2008. http://www.aicr.org.uk/lungcancerfaqs.stm?source=Adwords National Library of Medicine Lung cancer small cell MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia: Lung Cancer. 19 March 1999. 29 January 2008. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/lungcancer.html Cancer Lung Cancer Risk Factors Department of Health and Human Services. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2007. 29 January 2008. http://www.cdc.gov/cancer/lung/basic_info/risk_factors.htm Lung Cancer Causes, Symptoms, Signs, Stages, Treatment and Diagnosis on MedicineNet.com. MedicineNet, Inc. 1996-2008. 29 January 2008. http://www.medicinenet.com/lung_cancer/article.htm#toca Lung Cancer oncologychannel. 1998-2008. 29 January 2008 http://www.oncologychannel.com/lungcancer/index.shtml Rodger M. Bruce R.N. WHISSL Worldwide Health Information System Simulation Linkage. WHISSL. 29 January 2008. http://whissl.utmb.edu/WHISSL/index.asp Lobectomy Lung Cancer Surgery Lobectomy and Lung Cancer. About.com. 2008. 29 January 2008. http://cancer.about.com/od/lungcancersurgery/p/lobectomy.htm

Geophysical Methods Used In Groundwater Exploration

Geophysical Methods Used In Groundwater Exploration The role of geophysical methods in Groundwater Exploration is imperative. Its chief aim is to understand the hidden subsurface hydrogeological setting correctly and effectively. As the base of any geophysical methods is the contrast between the physical properties such as the features, objects, and layers and the surroundings. Parker et al, (2009) indicated that object are only confirmed when the contrast is sufficiently large enough to change the geophysical signal depicting the anomaly as an alien feature of the subsurface i.e., different physical and/or chemical properties than the surroundings in which it is located. They also indicated that geophysical method does not only characterise the subsurface but also spot inhomogeneous features or target that are not characteristics of the surrounding host material in water, water-covered, soil or sediments. Thus the better the contrast or anomaly, the better would be geophysical response and hence the identification. So, the efficiency of any geophysical techniques lies in its ability to sense and resolve the hidden subsurface hydrogeological heterogeneities or disparity. For groundwater exploration a cautious appliance or combination of techniques is most vital to become successful in exploration, technologically as well as cost-effectively. It is undeniably conceptualized that groundwater cannot be detected directly by any one of the geophysical methods and therefore the interpretation is appropriate and a broad understanding of the subsurface hydrogeological condition or setting is a must. Hubbard S.S et al., (2000), Ugur Yaramanci et al., (2002) and Ramke L. Van Dam (2010) emphasizes the use of two or more complementary geophysical methods to enhance data interpretation. With multiple collocations of geophysical data available, excellent results will be produced with significantly better interpretations than when with a single method. Conventional geophysical methods have often been used to map the geometry of aquifers such as seismic, electrical and electromagnetic methods (Wattanasen et al (2008)). These methods have been used to determined and estimate locations, transmission properties, storage and the aquifer materials despite the ambiguity of the interpreted results due to limitation in each method and the site dependence. But with the improvements in instruments, the development of better methods as resulted in a widening of its applications. Surface Electrical Resistivity The primary purpose of resistivity method is to determine the subsurface resistivity distributions by making measurements on the ground surface. There by measuring the potential difference on the surface due to the current flow within the ground. From this measurement the true resistivity of the subsurface can be estimated. The mechanism responsible for the fluid flow and electric current and conduction in porous media according to P.M Soupious et al., 2007, are generally governed by the same physical parameters and lithological attributes, thus the hydraulic and electric conductivities are dependents on each other, while H.S. Salem et al., 1999, indicated that electric-current conduction is affected by various mechanisms in a saturated systems and can be represented by a two-phase model (grain-matrix conductance) known as dispersed phase, and pore-fluid conductance also known as continuous phase. The two-phase model can further be developed into a five-phase model, consisting of sur face conductance occurring at the charged fluid-solid interface, ion-exchange conductance, Maxwellian-effects conductance of both solids in the matrix and those suspended in the pore fluid, grain-matrix conductance and pore fluid conductance. The electrical conduction in the subsurface is mainly electrolytic because most minerals grains are insulators, therefore, the conduction of electricity is through the interstitial water/ or fluids in the pores and fissures. These pore space and fissure of rocks are filled by groundwater which is a natural electrolyte. The factors responsible for the flow and conduction of electrical resistivity in soil and rocks are extremely variable and can vary by several orders of magnitude. These factors according to Loke, 1999 are porosity, degree of water saturation and concentration of dissolved solids, O.A.L. de Lima et al., 2000; tortuosity and porosity, P.M Soupious et al., 2007; lithology, mineralogy, size, shape, packing and orientation of mineral grains, shape and geometry of pores and pore channels, permeability, compaction, magnitude of porosity, consolidation and cementation and depth and water distribution. The resistivity of sedimentary rocks, which are usually more porous, with high water content is highly variable with low resistivity and depends on its formation factor. Formation factor is a very powerful tool in resistivity surveys as it allows pore fluid resistivity to be calculated directly from bulk earth resistivity measurements. This relationship can also be used to convert earth resistivity contours in to fluid conductivity or TDS contours. Bulk resistivity of the ground is measured from direct current resistivity and it obeys an empirical law within an aquifer. This was first proposed by Archie (1942) and the relationship may be expressed as: à Ã‚  = a à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢- m S- n à Ã‚ f Where à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ is the porosity of the rock formation, S is the degree of saturation, a, m, and n are constants that depend upon the formation, à Ã‚ f is the resistivity of pore fluid. Archies Law shows that bulk resistivity à Ã‚  of fully saturated formation of a granular medium containing no clay depends significantly on the resistivity of the pore fluid à Ã‚ f. This is mainly as a result of the resistivity of the fluid much lower than that of the solid grains in the matrix. Given that, matrix conduction is negligible and the electric current passes almost entirely through the fluid phase, thus making resistivity methods much more important for hydrological studies. (S.R Wilson et al., 2006). Archies law can thus be expressed as: à Ã‚  = a à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢- m à Ã‚ f, assuming that at saturation, S is1. where à Ã‚  is the bulk resistivity, à Ã‚ f is the fluid resistivity, à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ is the porosity of the medium, m is known as the cementation factor and a, the tortuosity factor, cementation intercept, lithology factor or lithology coefficients is associated with the medium and its value in many cases departs from the commonly assumed value of one. It is meant to correct for variation in compaction, pore structure and grain size. According to H.S. Salem 1999, the cementation factor of Archie;s equation has specific effects on electric conduction processes in porous media and exhibits extensive disparities from sample to sample, formation to formation, interval to interval in the same medium and from medium to medium. Because of its dependence on various properties, m has been referred to as cementation factor, shape factor, conductivity factor, porosity exponent, resistivity factor, and cementation exponent. The dependence of m on the degree of cementation is not as strong as its dependence on the grain and pore properties (shape and type of grains, and shape and size of pores and pore throats). Therefore it is more appropriate to describe m as shape factor instead of cementation factor. Resstivity survey has been used for a number of geological purposes. S. Srinivas Gowd, 2004, J.O. Oseji, 2006, A.G. Batte et al., 2010, used surface electrical resistivity surveys to delineate groundwater potentials, A. Samouelian et al.,2005, used electrical resistivity survey in soil, S.R. Wilson et al., for saline interface definition, M. Arshad et al., 2006, for lithology and groundwater quality determination, A. Turesson, 2006, for water content and porosity estimations. S.R Wilson, et al, (2006) applied earth resistivity methods in defining saline interface in Te Horo on the Kapiti Coast in New Zealand. They used vertical electric sounding (VES) and direct current resistivity traversing which has been mostly successful in defining subsurface areas of higher salinity by providing a two-dimensional image of the bulk resistivity structure. A VES technique has been used most frequently to locate the extent of saline interface using the Schlumberger array geometry. It shows variation in bulk resistivity with distance from the coast and this could be related to the degree of saline mixing but fails to give in depth picture of both the location or structure of the saline interface. However, with the location of the estimated saline interface known, resistivity traversing can be used to improve its location and shape. They result clearly show the potential of resistivity traversing in mapping and in understanding the structure and progression of saline interface in coastal aquifers. Even though VES data may resolve one-dimensional resistivity structure beneath a sounding location, any two- dimensional interpretation of the data requires interpolation between discrete measurements. In contrast, resistivity traversing data provide continuous two-dimensional image of both lateral and vertical variations in resistivity. The important contrast in the electrical resistivity of saline and fresh water allows direct imaging of a sharp saline interface. However, they used formation factor to interpret resistivity data from a much wider area. The formation factor for an aquifer is defined from Archies Law with an assumption that at saturation S is 1, as F =p/pf=aà Ã¢â‚¬ ¢-m Sharma et al (2005), carried out an integrated electrical and very low frequency (VLF) electromagnetic surveys to delineate groundwater- bearing zones in hard rock areas of Purulia districts, west Bangal, in India for the construction of deep tube-wells for large amounts of water. The location of potential fractures zones in hard rock areas to yield large amounts of groundwater is very difficult and therefore cannot be easily done using one approach. Hence groundwater potential of any location in hard rock areas requires several approaches, geophysical as well as hydrogeological techniques to increase groundwater yield. Electrical and electromagnetic geophysical methods have been extensively used in the search for groundwater as a result of good correlation between electrical properties, fluid content and geology. Groundwater in hard rock areas is normally found in cracks and fractures and therefore the yield depends on the interconnectivity and size of the fractures. The combined use of DC resistivity soundings, SP measurement, Wenner profiling and VLF electromagnetic were used to map the fractures in hard rock areas. VES method was used to determined resistivity variations with depth but cannot be performed everywhere without the priori information. The VLF was successful in mapping resistivity contrast in boundaries of fractures with high degrees of connectivity and also as a result of their high resistivity they have been proved to yield a higher depth of penetration in hard rock areas. Additionally, VLF data is useful in determining suitable strike direction to perform resistivity sounding i.e. parallel to strike and thus improving the chances of success. Resistivity profiling and SP measurement also give important information about the presence of a conductivity fracture and groundwater movement. They concluded that VLF measurement only give indications of the presence of conductive zone but cannot differentiate between deep and shallow sources. Hence, it is essential to follow the location of these VLF anomalies with a technique that investigate the depth of these conductive sources. Consequently, the Schlumberger sounding technique was proved to be effective in determining resistivity variation with depth. A review on the use of electrical resistivity survey as applied to soil was carried out by Samoulian et al, (2005) to re-examine the basic concept of the method and the different types of arrays devices used (one-, two- and three-dimensional arrays), the sensitivity of electrical measurements to soil properties which includes the degree of water saturation i.e. water content, arrangement of voids such as porosity and pore size distribution connectivity and the nature of the solid constituents such as particle size distribution and mineralogy and the main advantages and limitations of the method. They review indicated that electrical resistivity is non-destructive and can make available continuous measurements over a large scope of areas as compared to the conventional soil science measurements and observation which disturb the soil by random and or regular drilling and sampling. As a result of these temporal variables such as water and plant nutriment, depending on the internal structure can be monitored and quantified without changing the soil structure. Thus the application is numerous which includes; determination of soil horizonation and specific heterogeneities, follow-up of the transport phenomena and the monitoring of solute plume contamination in a saline or waste context. However, they suggested that electrical measurements do not give straight access to soil characteristics that is of interest to the agronomist and therefore preliminary laboratory calibration and qualitative or quantitative data interpretations must be carried out in order to connect the electrical measurements with the soil characteristics and function. Direct and indirect method of groundwater investigation was carried out in southern Sweden using magnetic resonance sounding (MRS) and vertical electrical sounding (VES) by Wattanasen et al, (2008). The aim of the survey was to compare MRS with VES and other geophysical methods. The MRS results were consistent with VES. It is a successful tool in groundwater exploration particularly in an area of sedimentary rocks of high magnitude of earth magnetic field. A good quality data was obtained as a result of low ambience noise, low variation in the earth magnetic field and high level of MRS signal. The MRS was effective in determining the depth to water layers, water content and their thickness. It can also detect water in areas with high conductive clay layer that is close to the surface, a factor that limits the penetration depth of other geophysical methods like GPR. Hydraulic properties are essential parameters in hydrogeology for accurate modelling of groundwater flow and rate of movement of contaminant or pollution. These properties; hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity and storage coefficient are used to describe and quantify the capacity of the materials composing aquifers and confining units to transmit and store water. The hydraulic conductivity and storage coefficients (storativity) are aquifer properties that may vary spatially because of geologic heterogeneity. Traditionally, pumping test or laboratory techniques when core samples are available have been used to determine the aquifer hydraulic parameters. These methods have been proved to be invasive and expensive and provide information only in the vicinity of the boreholes and the sample locations. The application of geophysical techniques could be seen as a means of providing important complementary information that might help to reduce the costs of hydrogeological investigations. Aristodemou et al., (1999) and Soupious et al., (2007) also applied surface geophysical techniques to determine the hydraulic conductivity values using both Kozeny-Carman-Bear equation and the Worthington equation. According to Worthington equation: Fa=Fi .(1 + BQvà Ã‚ w)- 1 (1) where, Fa is the apparent formation factor, Fi is the intrinsic formation factor and the BQv term is related to the effects of surface conductance, mainly due to clay particles. In case surface conductance effects are non-existent, the apparent formation factor becomes equal to the intrinsic one. Thus, 1/Fa= 1/Fi +( BQv/Fi)à Ã‚ w (2) Where 1/Fa, is the intercept of the straight line and BQv/Fi represents gradient. Thus, by plotting 1/Fa versus fluid resistivity à Ã‚ w, we should in principle, obtain a value for the intrinsic formation factor, which will subsequently enable us to estimate porosity from the formula à Ã‚ o = a à Ã‚ w à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢- m where à Ã‚ o is the bulk resistivity, à Ã‚ w is the fluid resistivity, à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ is the porosity of the medium and m is the cementation factor, although it is also interpreted as grain-shape or pore-shape factor; the coefficient of a is associated with the medium and its value in many cases departs from the commonly assumed value of one. The apparent formation factor Fa =à Ã‚ o/à Ã‚ w, where à Ã‚ o is the bulk resistivity obtained from the resistivity inversion and à Ã‚ w is the fluid electrical resistivity obtained from the borehole. These porosities were subsequently used to estimate the hydraulic conductivity through the Kozeny-Carman-Bear equation. K = ( ÃŽÂ ´wg / ÃŽÂ ¼) . (d2 /180) . [ (à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢3 / (1 à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢2 ) ] Where d is the grain size, ÃŽÂ ´w is the fluid density, and ÃŽÂ ¼ is the dynamic viscosity. Andreas Hordt et al., (2006) and Andrew Binley et al., (2005) used spectra induced polarization to determine the hydraulic conductivity. There work was focussed on laboratory experiments in order to establish a semi- empirical relationship between complex electrical resistivity and hydraulic parameters and then applied the field technique to evaluate the feasibility of the method. Thus the hydraulic conductivity, k was then calculated from the Kozeny- Carman equation based on formation factor and inner surface area. K = 1/ F(Spor)c, The exponent c is an adjustable parameter. Complex electrical conductivity was used as a convenient means of hydrogeological applications; à Ã†â€™ = à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ à Ã†â€™Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡eià Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ = à Ã†â€™ + ià Ã†â€™ Where à Ã†â€™ and à Ã†â€™ denote real and imaginary part, and à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã†â€™Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ and à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ denote magnitude and phase, of the conductivity à Ã†â€™. Formation factor was calculated from the equation: F = à Ã†â€™ w/ Re(à Ã†â€™) Im (à Ã†â€™)/l where à Ã†â€™w is the pore fluid conductivity. The factor l is the ratio between imaginary and real part of the surface conductivity. The pore space- internal surface area, Spor is an empirically derived equation from laboratory. Anita Turesson (2006), applied ground- penetrating radar and resistivity independently to evaluate their capability to assess water content and porosity for saturated zone in a sandy section, since dielectric and the resistivity of rocks and sediments are very much dependent on moisture content. Archies empirical formula was used in the resistivity method to determine the relationship between resistivity and porosity (Andrew Binley et al., 2005) in the sedimentary clay free rocks based on the formation factor, which is the ratio of resistivity of the porous media to that of the pore fluid. The results obtained shows good agreement between the two methods in the saturated zone and they use of the independent methods greatly strengthen the results. Another subsurface geophysical techniques is the Induced Polarization (IP) technique which over the past years has been used successfully for mineral exploration by providing in situ information about rock mineralogy mainly disseminated ores and mineral discrimination. More recently the method has been applied in the field of environment and engineering studies to materials which do not contain conductive minerals but rather clay minerals for the mapping of polluted land areas, movement of contaminants and grain size distribution parameters in unconsolidated sediments (E. Aristodemou et al.,(2000); Andreas Hordt et al., 2006, 2007)). In theory, induced polarization is a dimensionless quantity whereas in practice it is  measured as a change in voltage with time or frequency. The time and frequency IP  methods are fundamentally similar, however, they differ in a way of considering and  measuring electrical waveforms. In the former, a direct current is applied into the  ground, and what is recorded is the decay of voltage between two potential electrodes  after the cut off of the current (time-domain method). In the latter, the variation  of apparent resistivity of the ground with the frequency of the applied current is  determined (frequency-domain method). In another type of frequency method, which is called Complex Resistivity (CR) method, a current at frequency range (0.001 Hz to 10 kHz) is injected in the ground and the amplitude of voltage as well as its phase with respect to the current is measured. That is a phase-angle IP measurement. Various studies have been carried out most recently to establish an empirical relationship between hydraulic properties and induced polarisation measurements, though only limited number of studies exists so far at a field scale. The reason for this is that hydraulic properties depend on both porosity and geometry of the pore space. Induced polarisation (IP), is the only geophysical methods that depends on surface characterisation and has been used in hydrology as the possible link to hydraulic properties. (Binley et al., (2005)). Semi-emperical relationships between IP and hydraulic properties have been extensively investigated. Andreas Hordt et al., (2007), estimated hydraulic conductivity from induced polarisation using multi-channel surface IP measurement over a sand/gravel aquifer at Krauthausen. Despite carrying out measurement over a broad frequency range called spectra IP, the hydraulic conductivity analysis was restricted to single frequency data based on the Borner model and Slater and Lesme model. They however, used two different approaches to determine the hydraulic conductivities from the IP results. The first approach is the Bà ¶rner method refered to as the constant-phase angle (CPA), where real and imaginary parts of complex electrical conductivity was sufficient to estimate the hydraulic conductivity from the Kozeny-Carman type equation; k=1/F(Spor)c, based on two parameters; the formation factor and the pore-space related internal surface area, Spor which was empirically derived from laborat ory measurements . The second approach suggested by Slater and Lesme was based on an empirical relationship between k and the imaginary part of conductivity at 1 Hz without using the real part and/or the formation factor: K=m/(b)n. This was based on the argument that hydraulic conductivity primarily depends on the specific inner surface. Andrew Binley et al. 2005, worked on the relationship between spectra induced polarisation and hydraulic properties of saturated and unsaturated sandstone. They tried to observe the spectra IP response of samples taken from the UK sandstone aquifer and compared the measured parameters with the physical and hydraulic properties. There result shows that the mean relaxation time, Æ ¬, is a more suitable measure of IP response for these sediments, with a significant inverse correlation existing between the surface area to pore volume ratio and the Æ ¬, suggesting that Æ ¬ is a measure of a characteristic hydraulic length scale. This was supported by a strong positive correlation between log K and log Æ ¬. There results revealed significant impact of saturation on the measured spectra, thus limiting the applicability of hydraulic-electric models in utilizing the SIP measurements. However, in contrast, they suggested new opportunities for development of physically b ased models linking unsaturated hydraulic characteristics with spectra IP data. The resistivity method was used to solve more problems of groundwater in the types alluvium, karstic and another hard formation aquifer as an inexpensive and useful method. Some uses of this method in groundwater are: determination of depth, thickness and boundary of an aquifer (Zohdy, 1969; and Young et al. 1998), determination of interface saline water and fresh water (El-Waheidi, 1992; Yechieli, 2000; and Choudhury et al., 2001), porosity of aquifer (Jackson et al., 1978), water content in aquifer (Kessels Induced Polarization Fundamentals The induced polarization (IP) method is an electrical geophysical technique, which measures the  slow decay of voltage in the subsurface following the cessation of an excitation current pulse. Basically, an electrical current is imparted into the subsurface, as in the electrical resistivity  method explained elsewhere in this chapter. Water in the subsurface geologic material (within  pores and fissures) allows for certain geologic material to show an effect called induced polarization  when an electrical current is applied. During the application of the electrical current, electrochemical  reactions within the subsurface material takes place and electrical energy is stored. After  the electrical current is turned off the stored electrical energy is discharged which results in a  current flow within the subsurface material. The IP instruments then measure the current flow.   Thus, in a sense, the subsurface material acts as a large electrical capacitor. The induced polarization method measures the bulk electrical characteristics of geologic units;  these characteristics are related to the mineralogy, geochemistry and grain size of the subsurface  materials through which electrical current passes. Induced polarization measurements are taken together with electrical resistivity measurements  using specialized IP instruments. Although the IP method historically has been used in mining  exploration to detect disseminated sulfide deposits, it has also been used successfully in ground  water studies to map clay and silt layers which serve as confining units separating unconsolidated  sediment aquifers. Advantages Induced polarization data can be collected during an electrical resistivity survey, providing the  proper equipment is used. The addition of IP data to a resistivity investigation improves the  resolution of the analysis of resistivity data in three ways: 1) some of the ambiguities encountered  in resolving thin stratigraphic layers while modeling electrical resistivity data can be reduced by  analysis of IP data; 2) IP data can be used to distinguish geologic layers which do not respond well  to an electrical resistivity survey; and 3) the measurement of another physical property (electrical  chargeability) can be used to enhance a hydrogeologic interpretation, such as discriminating  equally electrically conductive targets such as saline, electrolytic or metallic-ion contaminant plumes from clay layers. Limitations The induced polarization method is more susceptible to sources of cultural interference (metal  fences, pipelines, power lines, electrical machinery and so on) than the electrical resistivity method. Also, induced polarization equipment requires more power than resistivity-alone equipment   this translates into heavier and bulkier field instruments. The cost of an IP system can be  much greater than a resistivity-alone system. This, plus an added amount of complexity in the  interpretation of the IP data and the expertise needed to analyze and interpret this data may exceed  the resources of some contractors and consultants. Induced polarization fieldwork tends to be labor intensive and often requires two to three crew  members. Like electrical resistivity surveys, induced polarization surveys require a fairly large  area, far removed from power lines and grounded metallic structures such as metal fences, pipelines  and railroad tracks. Instrumentation Induced polarization instruments are similar to electrical resistivity instruments. There are two  different types of induced polarization systems. Probably the most common type of IP instrument  is the time-domain system. This instrument transmits a constant electrical current pulse during  which time the received voltage is sampled for an electrical resistivity measurement, acting like a  conventional electrical resistivity system. The electrical current is then shut off abruptly by the  system, and after a specified time delay (several milliseconds) the decaying voltage in the subsurface  is sampled at the IP receiver, averaging over one or more time windows or time gates. The  units of measurement are in millivolt-seconds per volt. The second type of IP instrument is the frequency-domain system. In this type of system,  transmitted current is sinusoidal at a specified frequency. Since the system is always on, only an  electrical resistivity measurement can be collected at a particular frequency. To collect induced  polarization data, two frequencies are used, and a percent change is apparent electrical resistivity  from measurements collected at the two frequencies is calculated. This number is called the  percent frequency effect or PFE, and the units are dimensionless in percent. Two frequencies  commonly used are 0.3 and 3.0 Hertz, representing low and high frequency responses, respectively. Other types of Induced polarization may be encountered, although not commonly in environmental  applications. These include spectral induced polarization, complex resistivity, and phase  systems. A detailed description of these systems is beyond the scope of this chapter and the reader  is advised to consult the literature for an extensive discussion of these systems. Electrical resistivity surveying is an active geophysical technique that involves applying an electrical current to the earth and measuring the subsequent electrical response at the ground surface in order to determine physical properties of subsurface materials. The general principle of resistivity testing is that dissimilar subsurface materials can be identified by the differences in their respective electrical potentials. Differences in electrical potentials of materials are determined by the application of a known amount of electric current to these materials and the measurement of the induced voltage potentials. Ohms law states that the voltage (V) of an electric circuit is equal to the electric current (I) times the resistivity (R) of the medium (V-IR). Resistivity surveys are conducted by: 1) applying a known amount of electric current (I) to the earth; 2) measuring the induced voltage (V) ; and, using these two measurements, 3) determining the resistivity (R) of the volume of earth being surveyed. Resistivity methods usually require that both current inducing and measurement electrodes to be pushed or driven into the ground. With connecting wires from the instruments to the electrodes, electrical current is introduced into the ground using the current electrodes and resistivity measurements are performed using different measurement electrode configurations and spacings. There are a number of standardized testing procedures, some of which are described in detail in this section. Resistivity surveys identify geoelectric layers rather than geologic ones. A geoelectric layer is a layer that exhibits a similar electric resistivity response. A geoelectric layer can, but does not always, correspond to a geologic one. For example, an isotropic homogeneous sand, which is saturated with a fluid exhibiting a single conductivity response, will appear to be a single geoelectric layer. The same sand, if filled with fluid layers containing different conductivities, (i.e., salinities) will appear to be more than one geoelectric layer. The interpretation of resistivity data is therefore best made in conjunction with other geophysical techniques (i.e., seismic refraction) or conventional subsurface investigations (i.e., soil borings Historically, it was the use of galvanic measurement systems that gave rise to the IP method which  demonstrated its high efficiency in resistivity surveys for mineral prospecting and structural applications. Induced polarization is a complex phenomenon controlled by many  physical and physicochemical reactions associated with passage  of current through rocks. The Induced Polarization method of geophysical exploration is something of a rarity. It is the only new geophysical method to come into use in over fift